The same holds true for animals that live in water, such as fishes, molusks, crustacea and other similar animals; it is impossible to invoke as a proof that they do sleep the shutting of their eyes, inasmuch as they do not have eyelids but it is obvious that they periodically do rest, immobile, what perhaps does explain why at night their predators attack them heavily and devour them. Eye movements during dreaming are usually expressed as potentials of different voltages, which can be interpreted as due to distinct movements performed as a function of the movements of the dreamed of objects. Differentiating Oneiric Stupor in Agrypnia Excitata From Dreaming Disorders. WebThe leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. Recordings of the electrical activity of the brain, which we will refer to as electro-oscillograms, reveal specific patterns that express the phases of sleep in several central regions of the brain, including the phase during which most oniric activity takes place, the desynchronized or paradoxical sleep. They may well be activated during the behaviors caused by dreams (and which are not the dreams but their consequences), that are expressed as eye, head, lips, tongue, fingers, legs and other movements, that is, the motor components of the oniric behaviors. Researchers working on dream usually do not believe that dreaming may occur in non-human animals, probably due to religious and philosophical reasons but also to a great mistake, i.e., that dreaming is a high level mental activity, such as doing mathematics, but it is not. In humans, Hansotia and colleagues (34) found in humans, in accordance with our own observations in rats and cats, that oniric eye movements may be directed to one side or the other, not exclusively to one side, as stated by Vanni-Mercier and co-workers (29). In addition, zif-268 is up-regulated in several novelty or learning behavioral paradigms, including two-way active avoidance (104), brightness discrimination (105), and enriched environment exposure (106). By measuring the voltage of the potential generated by the rotation it is possible to know if the object is near or far. Noda H, Adey WR. The tonic inhibition of motoneurons by circuits in the alphacoeruleus nucleus during desynchronized sleep is mediated by hyperpolarization of their membrane (41-43). Candia et al. 84. 127. (ed. This author "thus proposes a psychoanalytical model of dreaming, in which dreams constitute a way of representing the individual's inner world with internal objects related with one another and with the self" (135). If we dream we are walking, the electromyographic recordings from muscles involved in such behavior show quite clearly that they are not able to produce normal movements. Brain Develop (Tokyo) 1992;14:109-20. Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. 105. Timo-Iaria C, yamashita R, Hoshino K, Sousa-Melo A. It would appear that the intense activation of desynchronized sleep must overcome this demodulation and persist into subsequent waking, in order for very vivid dreams to be remembered. Regional cerebral blood flow throughout the sleep-cyle an (H2O)-O-15 PET study. Simes CA, Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C. Correlation between concomitant theta waves in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the hippocampus, thalamus and neocortex during dreaming in rats. Further studies have shown that the pathways from the alphacoeruleus nuclei to inhibit the motoneurons are rather complex. 8. Does early night REM dream content reliably reflect presleep state of mind? During the first half of the twentieth century, despite the heavy influence of psychoanalysis, dreaming was again but sporadically studied scientifically. Oswald I. Petersohn D, Schoch S, Brinkmann DR, Thiel G. The human synapsin II gene promoter. (eds. 29. There are other definitions of the word dream, too. Animal experimentation, by making it possible to implant electrodes in any part of the nervous system and to lesion and stimulate (electrically or chemically) also any nucleus or pathway, has been of the utmost relevance for the understanding of the mechanisms causing not only sleep but also the manifestations of dreaming. National Library of Medicine 126. Considering that most dreams in rats (31,32) are related to olfaction, not to vision, potentials that resemble PGOs in the amygdala of this animal species should also be taken as signs of dreaming rather than PGOs. Psychoanalysis also considers dreams as the expression of repressed wishes; this is undoubtly true as to only a few dreams, whereas several studies reveal, instead, that most dreams are closely related to the events of the previous day, as Aristotle had already demonstrated. Miyauchi et al. Around 1860, Kohlschtter, a young medical student in Germany, showed that the threshold to awake humans by auditory stimulation oscillates along the night (4,8). Analysis of psychological theories concerning functions of dreams. The earliest theory to emerge, Freuds psychoanalytic theory, takes an observational approach to identifying the function that dreams serve. Freud theorized that dreams are the result of unfulfilled wishes or desires in the subjects life. Neurons from the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis send fibers to nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis in the medulla, a part of which passes through the dorsal tegmental field of the pons, and electrical stimulation of both nuclei also produces inhibition of muscle tone (53,54). Baldissera F, Broggi G. An analysis of potential changes in the spinal cord during desynchronized sleep. These authors argue that despite the marked suppression of desynchronized sleep provoked by tricyclic antidepressants neither selective serotonine reuptake inhibitors and mono-amino-oxydase nor learning and memory are disrupted. Kohyama T, Hori A, Sato T, Nikami T, yamaki T, Veda S. Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity in healthy young men during overnight sleep and while awake. This is an additional fact to point to the activation of other mechanisms capable of producing wakefulness and desynchronized sleep, including dreaming. As a matter of fact, manifestations of dreaming have been identified in many species, including chickens, chimpanzees, cats, rats and in some birds. 128. No wonder that most dreams in humans have a visual component, explaining the reason why eye movements occur in any kind of dream, alone or as part of non-visual dreams. Neurosc Biobehav Rev 1992;16:372-97. 53. Confrontations Psychiatriques 1986;27:153-81. When the rat moves the head, for example (which may indicate a vestibular dream), heart rate goes up and may be as high as 330 bpm, similar to that occurring during attentive behavior. Mirmiran M. The function of fetal neonatal rapid eye movement sleep. Spreng LF, Johnson LC, Lubin A. Autonomic correlates of eye movement bursts during state REM sleep. Thomas J, Benoit O. Individualisation d'un sommeil ondes lentes et activit phasique. 33. While Freud makes many intuitive Dreaming has been a subject of cogitation since remote Antiquity. When they sleep, fishes keep quiet, with no apparent movements, and then they can be easily fished with a hand.". 63. 111. News Physiol Sci 1998;13:91-7. 49. The .gov means its official. Jouvet M. Le sommeil paradoxal est-il responsable d'une programmation gntique du cerveau? Thus, any study of dreaming also lends itself to psychological scrutiny and clinical application. Around 80 per cent of such motor activity was found to occur during desynchronized sleep, what points to its participation in dreaming activity. (1987) suggested the occurrence of two kinds of eye movements during dreams, one associated to the very dream content, another of reflex nature, that may be involved in those occurring in children and in blind people but such a hypothesis is unlikely to be valid (35). 104. In fact, when the voltage of each theta wave in one site is compared with the voltage in another site it is possible to assess the degree of coincidence or phase shift between the two sites. Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. 1. Similarly, in rats any kind of sensory stimulation does immediately mobilize sniffing and vibrissal scanning movements. 125. In humans the electro-oscillograms during desynchronized sleep are expressed as overall cortical desynchronization, whence the adequacy of the name created by Moruzzi, desynchronized sleep. Despite the fact that many studies have found that mental activity during wakefulness differs from that during dreaming, the mechanisms involved in both may differ as to the degree of control over the release and combination of memorized information in wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep. Moruzzi's coined the name desynchronized sleep, which we prefer, because in humans desynchronization is the main electrophysiological marker of this phase. In cats, Thomas & Benoit (18) have found oniric activity during synchronized sleep, similar to what we described in rats as pre-paradoxical sleep (19,20) as intermediate phase. During the past two decades several authors also did quantify the kinds of dreams. Sleep research: pictures from the early years. J Neurophysiol 1966;29:871-87. Some authors have not been able to find changes in heart rate and respiration during desynchronized sleep (61) but there are striking demonstrations that blood pressure is reduced (figure 6), attaining values as low as 60 mmHg of systolic pressure; heart rate is also reduced and ventilation decreases (38,62). The cycle of sleep in the rat (preliminary report). doi: 10.1093/nc/nix009. Movements of the eyes when the lids are closed. Brain activity during this time keeps us functioning and ready to process information when we wake up the next morning! Moruzzi G. Active processes in the brain stem during sleep. Dreams during REM sleep tend to be longer, more vivid, more story-like, and more bizarre than those during NREM sleep. Experimental methodologies permitted investigation of the responsiveness of dreams to external stimulation and the effects of deprivation of REM sleep. Vertes & Eastman (2000), for instance, believe that the stressful conditions in experiments intended to demonstrate a role of desynchronized sleep and dreaming in consolidation of memory spoil the results (88). Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. Physiol Behav 1974;12:293-5. Proc Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:867-76. Eye movements in born-blinds are probably due to a quite different reason. 42. 22. Baust's data regarding the cat are also evident (38). Experimental study. The main electrophysiological marker of this phase brain activity during this time keeps us functioning and ready process! Of mind, and more bizarre than those during NREM sleep state of mind I. D... 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